BY: FEDERICA LEVINI
Federica Levini is a young professional specializing in renewable energy and sustainable development. She graduated from the Johns Hopkins SAIS in 2024 with a Master of Arts in International Affairs (MAIA), where she focused on the intersection of environmental sustainability, energy and development. She is currently Technical Consultant at FAO Perù, overseeing environmental projects at national and regional levels, supporting governance, sustainability, and climate resilience initiatives.
The rapid expansion of global photovoltaic system installations over the past decade underscores the urgency of addressing pressing challenges: meeting rising energy demands, combating climate change, and advancing environmental sustainability. This shift gains particular momentum in the context of the European Union's REPowerEU Plan, launched in response to global geopolitical pressures such as the Ukraine conflict. The plan accelerates the adoption of renewable energy, supported by the Renewable Energy Directive (RED), which sets binding targets for renewables across the EU. Italy, leveraging its southern regions' abundant solar resources, has actively embraced this transition, fostering the development of photovoltaic projects to meet these ambitious goals. The surge in solar energy deployment raises pressing questions about land use, as large-scale photovoltaic systems often overlap with agricultural spaces. This creates a critical tension between the need for sustainable energy and the preservation of agricultural productivity—a core challenge in achieving a just transition. Agrivoltaics, which integrate solar energy production with farming, present a promising solution to balance these competing demands, enabling renewable energy expansion while supporting environmental and social equity. Without the adoption of agrivoltaics, land competition could intensify, resulting in diminished agricultural output, increased food insecurity, and social tensions in farming-dependent regions. Agrivoltaics in Sicilian vineyards, with a particular focus on its sustainability in comparison to conventional photovoltaic systems, offer a unique case study into the potential benefits of this approach.
The exponential growth in global photovoltaic system installations over the past decade reflects an urgent response to pressing challenges, such as escalating energy demands, climate change, and environmental sustainability. In light of global geopolitical events, especially the Ukraine conflict, the European Union has introduced the REPowerEU Plan, which aims to accelerate the adoption of renewable energy sources across the EU. The Renewable Energy Directive (RED) represents a central pillar of this endeavor, establishing binding targets for the EU's renewable energy share. Italy, along with other EU member states, has demonstrated a commitment to the expansion of its renewable energy capabilities. Specifically, these efforts have been shown in several photovoltaic projects, aimed at utilizing Italy's geographical advantages, especially in the southern regions, in order to harness its ample solar energy potential. Despite the promising prospects of solar photovoltaic systems as a renewable energy source, a notable challenge arises from the substantial land requirements, which frequently overlap with agricultural areas. This highlights a fundamental competition between solar energy and agriculture, both dependent on the same primary source: the sun. It is within this context that agrivoltaics emerge as a compelling solution.
Agricoltaics in Sicilian vineyards, with a particular focus on its sustainability in comparison to conventional photovoltaic systems, offer a unique case study into the potential benefits of this approach. Agrivoltaics, or agro-photovoltaics, are photovoltaic systems designed to integrate solar energy production with agricultural or pastoral activities, ensuring land use continuity and minimizing conflicts between energy generation and food production. The idea is to find a synergy between electricity production and agriculture. Specifically, agrivoltaic (APV) was conceptualized as a solution to the increasing land competition between food and energy production.1 As demand for renewable energy sources to mitigate climate change increases, the expansion of solar PV installations competes with agriculture. This competition is particularly marked in regions in high demand for both food production and renewable energy development. The challenge is to achieve a balance between the need to increase energy security and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, on the one hand, and the need to ensure food security for a growing population, on the other. The increasing demand for solar energy requires either a large area of land or the realization of a very large number of small or medium-sized plants, which have a much higher cost of energy.2 With the projected addition of two billion more individuals to the global population by 2050, the demand for energy and food production is expected to increase by 47% and 60%, respectively, in order to meet the anticipated needs.3 By combining solar PV installations with agricultural activities, agrivoltaic systems can make more efficient use of available land, especially when it is limited.
Agrivoltaics can be classified into two main categories: independent systems in open fields and integrated systems within enclosed structures. In open fields, panels can be mounted close to the ground, facilitating permanent grassland and animal grazing. Alternatively, they can be positioned higher (over 2.1 meters) to allow machinery passage and crop cultivation underneath. This is known as advanced agrivoltaics. A multitude of studies have investigated the efficacy of agrivoltaics, with varied results depending on the type of terrain, the crop and the climate.
From a commercial standpoint, several pilot plants are under development and numerous companies are directing their efforts toward vineyard agrivoltaics. Sun’Agri is an example. The pioneering Nidolères estate in Tresserre, Pyrénées-Orientales (France), took the lead in 2018 by installing photovoltaic panels on 4.5 hectares of vineyards. Since 2017, the Aspres region, known for its strong viticultural tradition and low-yield, high-quality wines, has faced the challenges of climate change and worsening droughts, leading to significant agricultural abandonment. To counter this, agrivoltaics has emerged as a key strategy to rejuvenate vineyards– demonstrating the capacity to enhance land productivity by up to 70%. This offers a range of advantages, including the mitigation of climate change impacts and the improvement of water balance in arid regions.
Despite its promising prospects, agrivoltaic wine production is still in its early stages, with several pilot projects emerging recently.
In Italy, fossil fuels remain the main energy source. Natural gas and oil dominate Italy’s electricity mix. Renewables, like solar PV, account only for 8.9% of the total energy supply. Nonetheless, 30% of the energy produced in the country is made of renewable energy sources. This huge disparity is due to the fact that Italy imports approximately 80% of its total energy supply (4), despite a decreasing trend as a response to the war in Ukraine. The role of renewable energy in the country has undergone a period of accelerated growth over the past decade. Solar PV has represented a significant proportion of this growth, with 33% of the renewable electricity generation. This has been made possible by the falling cost of solar panels, which have become a cost-effective source of new electricity generation, but also to the aggressive incentives program introduced by the Italian Government in 2005, known as “Conto Energia”. This scheme accelerated solar technology adoption, allowing Italy to exceed EU targets. 5 Following the conclusion of the “Contro Energia” in 2013, the sector experienced a period of relative stagnation, characterized by a decline in the number of installations, with the majority of these being for domestic purposes. By 2023, Italy had installed a total of 30.28 GW of solar photovoltaic (PV) capacity, with 5.23 GW added that year.6 Despite recent regulatory changes driving capacity additions, Italy still lags behind the required annual installation rate of 12 GW to meet its 2030 targets.
Italy has considerable potential for solar energy production (Figure 1), particularly in the southern regions and islands, with Sicily at the forefront.
Figure 1: Direct normal irradiation, Italy.
Source: World Bank Group
Notwithstanding the higher solar potential in the southern regions, photovoltaic installations are distributed throughout the country. A review of data provided by the Gestore dei Servizi Energetici (GSE) in June 2020, with updates until the end of 2019, revealed that Lombardy (in the north) had the highest absolute number of installations, with over 135,000 out of a total of 880,000 installations across the country.
Additionally, Italy is one of the largest agricultural producers in the EU, with the agricultural sector accounting for about 2% of GDP.7 Despite the mountainous terrain being unsuitable for farming, approximately 4% of the population is employed in this sector. According to ISTAT (8), the utilized agricultural area is approximately 12.8 million hectares, or 41.8% of the entire national surface area. Italy's geographical characteristics present a significant potential for agrivoltaics. Unlike countries with extensive deserts or large tracts of unused land suitable for vast photovoltaic deployment, Italy's land is predominantly utilized. Moreover, as a leader in the agricultural sector, the nation heavily depends on farming.
Italy ranks among the EU countries with the highest direct energy consumption in food production, following France and Germany. Energy costs constitute over 20% of variable expenses for farms, with even higher percentages observed in certain production sub-sectors.9
The unique combination of land scarcity, a significant agricultural sector and abundant solar radiation renders Italy an ideal candidate for the extensive implementation of agrivoltaic technology. In 2023, the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) developed a regional-scale map of national agrivoltaic potential (Figure 3) with the objective of assisting public administrations in planning sector development. This map employs criteria focused on minimizing land use while optimizing energy and agricultural production. 10
Figure 3: Areas potentially exploitable for agrivoltaics, Italy
Source: ENEA, 2023
The pioneering development of agrivoltaic systems in Italy commenced with the establishment of the first installations by REM TEC S.r.l. in 2011. The Agrovoltaico system was conceived in 2004 and represents a significant advancement in the integration of sustainable energy and agriculture. This optimizes electrical energy production and enhances safety measures during extreme weather events. Furthermore, the PV mounting structures are designed to minimize shading effects on crops and facilitate the operation of conventional agricultural machinery beneath them.
2.2.3 - Legislation on Agrivoltaic
Agrivoltaics is gaining increasing attention in Italy. The National Recovery and Resilience Plan (PNRR) allocates a significant amount of financial resources (EUR 1.10 billion) to increase the share of energy produced from renewable energy sources. In particular, one of the measures included in the Plan incentivizes the spread of agrivoltaic systems of medium and large dimensions.11
While there are certainly some benefits to this system, the prospect of expanding photovoltaic farms in Sicily has raised concerns among local residents, particularly regarding the potential impact on agriculture. A number of stakeholders, including representatives of local energy communities, have expressed discontent the risks to traditional agricultural livelihoods caused by solar panel deployment. 12 These sentiments illustrate the multifaceted socio-economic and environmental considerations that are intertwined in the discourse surrounding the expansion of renewable energy in Sicily.
Despite its limited diffusion, numerous studies have consistently underlined the significant benefits that agrivoltaic installations can bring in terms of crop yield, quality and quantity. These benefits extend to reducing CO2 emissions, conserving water and combating desertification. PV coverage also offers potential protection against adverse weather conditions like hail, frost, and heavy rainfall, while in periods of intense radiation, it can mitigate water stress by reducing crop evapotranspiration (13):the process by which water moves from the soil and plants into the atmosphere. The installation of an agro-photovoltaic plant in Sicily, with a production capacity of 1.04 GW, is expected to generate around 1300 GWh per year, reducing greenhouse gas emissions by around 0.8 million tonnes of CO2.14 Furthermore, agrivoltaic has the potential to optimize the utilization of Sicily's agricultural land, enabling the cultivation of crops and the generation of solar energy at the same time. These systems could facilitate the most efficient use of land and contribute to the advancement of sustainable development. With the growing interest and investment in renewable energy projects in Sicily– including the construction of large-scale solar plants– integrating agrivoltaics into the region's agricultural landscape represents a promising avenue for enhancing energy and food security while simultaneously promoting economic growth and environmental sustainability.
3.2 Potential for Solar Energy and Agriculture
Sicily is the region with the highest potential for solar energy in Italy, and it is likely to be one of the highest in the EU, with a total mean capacity factor, which is the measure of the energy produced by a solar plant compared to its maximum output, of approximately 19%. The geographically privileged position of Sicily provides an average of 2,500 hours of sunshine per year. Three of the ten sunniest cities in Europe are situated on the island, with Palermo averaging 340 hours of sunshine per month. Reflecting the national trend, solar photovoltaic technology is widely adopted across the island, with every municipality hosting at least one installation.
3.3 Wine Production in Sicily and Potential for Agrivoltaic
Sicily is the leading region in Italy in terms of vineyard surface area, with 98,992 hectares, ranking it tenth globally.
Grapevines require ample sunlight and warmth in order to produce excellent wine. However, when temperatures become excessively high, it leads to a loss of acidity, increased sugar content, and a lack of fruity aromas. In the traditional approach, vines were shielded by trellises positioned on the sunset side, facilitating mutual shading due to the close proximity of rows, typically about 80 cm apart. However, the transition from manual to mechanized harvesting, while decreasing operational expenses, necessitates wider row spacing at least 2.5m apart– thereby eliminating self-shading. Consequently, vines are exposed to increased heat, leading to decreased yields.15 The French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) provides a concerning projection: if average temperatures were to rise by an additional 2 degrees, by 2050, 56% of the current wine-producing regions worldwide could disappear.16 The most identified effects of climate change on winemaking include earlier grape ripening, leading to increased sugar content and alcohol levels (+1.5% alcohol in 30 years), as well as the development of aroma precursors, altering the taste of wine and reducing its acidity.17 The rising temperatures in southern Italy, attributed to climate change, present a growing challenge to wine production in Sicily. The region's wine industry is facing the threat of extreme dry heat which jeopardizes its continued development even leading to frequent sunburn on grapes. These climatic shifts not only pose obstacles to business as usual but also impact grape quality and yield. Indigenous grape varieties, which are of great significance to Sicily's winemaking heritage, are particularly susceptible to heat stress.18 This has led to reduced yields, a deterioration in grape quality and an increased risk of sunburn, resulting in wines with undesirable flavors. Last year alone, 40% of the grapes were lost due to high temperatures.19
3.4 Cost-Benefit Analysis of APV vs PV on a Vineyard in Sicily
In order to assess the financial viability of implementing an agrivoltaic system for wine production in Sicily, I have undertaken the creation of a case study. The approach involves conducting a cost-benefit analysis, with a comparison of the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) between a traditional photovoltaic system (PV) and an agrivoltaic configuration (APV) on a vineyard in Sicily. LCOE is a calculation to allow financial analysts to compare different energy-producing technologies. Importantly, consistency will be ensured across key parameters such as location, installed capacity, interest rate, project life, and discount rate in this case study.
Here are the key assumptions that guide the analysis:
The area available for the installation of the plant is 20 hectares.
The wine variety cultivated is Nero d’Avola, yielding 125 quintals per hectare.
The total installed capacity of the power plant is 10MW.
The capacity factor of solar in Sicily is 19%.20
The project lifespan is 30 years.21
The Operation and Maintenance (O&M) rate is 2%.22
The discount rate, calculated using the weighted average cost of capital (WACC), is 7%.23
Based on literature review, we can create two models differing only in initial investment costs (CAPEX) and the operational expenses (OPEX). The photovoltaic (PV) model suggests an estimated cost of €9 million, derived from an assessment of the total cost, which indicates that a 1 megawatt solar farm typically costs between €833,000 and €1 million.24 For the purposes of this analysis, an average price of €900,000 per MW was chosen. Regarding operational costs, OPEX expenditures for solar projects typically vary between €5 and €9 per kilowatt. In this model, a projected rate of €7 per kilowatt was utilized, resulting in a total of €70,000 for the 10MW installation.25 As mentioned above, the APV model exhibits disparities primarily in CAPEX and OPEX. For a 10MW agrivoltaic system, the approximation is a CAPEX increase of approximately 20%, leading to a value of €11 mln. This escalation can be attributed to the elevated costs associated with specialized components such as cables laid at a minimum depth of one meter to ensure uninterrupted agricultural operations, as well as the utilization of specialized modules, bifacial panels, or transparent products, alongside sophisticated mounting systems.26 However, it is noteworthy that expenses related to other components such as cables, inverters, and transformer stations remain consistent across both project typologies. In similar projects it was observed that OPEX associated with APV systems exhibited a notable reduction compared to conventional PV installations, with a discernible discrepancy of 13%, as indicated by experiences in Germany.27 This difference in operating costs is mainly due to the reduced annual land costs, maintenance, mowing and surveillance costs associated with APV. The lower maintenance costs associated with agrivoltaic systems can be attributed to farmers already engaging in activities such as mowing the grass, which reduces the overall expenses. Additionally, since farmers are able to generate income from the land, the owner of the agrivoltaic plant is not required to pay as much. The only additional income required is that derived from leasing the building rights, which in turn reduces the overall land costs. The OPEX value considered in this model is then €60,000 per year. However, it is worth noting that the repair and maintenance costs are comparatively higher for agrivoltaics.
Results
Based on the analysis of the data, the traditional PV model demonstrates a LCOE value of €0.09 per kilowatt-hour (kWh), indicating that the cost of generating one kilowatt-hour of electricity with the solar PV amounts to €0.09. As anticipated, the LCOE associated with agrivoltaics exceeds that of conventional photovoltaic systems, standing at €0.11 per kilowatt-hour. The average price of electricity in Sicily's bidding zone is 10.30 cents per kilowatt hour.28 This indicates that photovoltaic is more financially advantageous than agrivoltaics, although the discrepancy in costs between them and the market price is not significant. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that the advantages of agrivoltaic systems extend beyond the scope of LCOE calculations.
Agrivoltaics has emerged as a highly effective method for enhancing land use efficiency, with the Land Equivalence Ratio (LER) serving as a key metric to quantify this efficiency. The LER was originally derived from intercropping practices in agriculture and is used to measure the efficiency of integrating agricultural and electricity production systems. Simulation studies conducted in Emilia Romagna, Italy, demonstrate the substantial benefits of agrivoltaics for land productivity. The consistently high LER values, exceeding 1, indicate that agrivoltaic scenarios are more effective than separate cultivation (of maize in this case) and electricity production using ground-mounted PV systems. Agrivoltaics can increase the productivity of a given land area by up to 70% by combining energy and crop production, maximizing electric energy production while optimizing land use.29
Figure 4: Increase in Land Use Efficiency with an agrivoltaic system
Source: Fraunhofer ISE, 2020
The concurrent utilization of land in agrivoltaics not only enhances land productivity but also presents additional benefits for landowners. In the conventional photovoltaic setup, farmers typically sell their land to contractors, receiving monetary compensation but forfeiting potential income from farming activities. In contrast, agrivoltaics offer the possibility of dual revenue streams for farmers, with income derived from both land use and energy production. Although the landowner may not directly own the solar installation, they may be able to benefit from electricity discounts, which would effectively reduce their expenses. Furthermore, the above-mentioned simulation showed that the reduction in radiation had a significant impact on the simulated mean soil temperature, evapotranspiration, and water balance, as illustrated in Figure 5. Across all observed years, the mean soil temperature exhibited a consistent decrease under agrivoltaic conditions compared to full light conditions (Figure 5a), with an average difference of 1°C.30
Figure 5. (a) Mean values of simulated soil Temperature (°C) in rooted layer, (b) seasonal evap-transpiration (mm). The box plots represent the data variability within the agrovoltaic scenario for each simulation year. The red squares indicate simulated values in FL.
Source: S. Amaducci et al., 2018
In the specific case study presented here, agrivoltaics implemented in vineyards across Sicily offer numerous additional benefits. It is widely acknowledged that weather factors such as temperature, solar radiation, and water availability strongly influence grapevine growth and development, impacting ultimately on yield and wine quality.31 As temperatures rise, plant water demand increases, yet the availability of irrigation water supply is decreasing. This dual challenge has had a detrimental impact on viticulture over recent decades. Although the grapevine is a drought-tolerant species, it requires a significant amount of water to complete its growth cycle, which coincides with the driest months.32 Recent research conducted by Italia Solare has demonstrated the efficacy of shading in reducing water consumption by up to 20%.33 In recent years, the region has experienced elevated temperatures, which have posed significant challenges for winemakers. This has resulted in a notable decline in productivity, with an approximate 40% reduction observed last year, attributed to sunburn and water stress. In the scenario outlined, this translates to a reduction from 125 quintals per hectare of Nero d’Avola to 87.5, resulting in an estimated total production of 1,750 quintals, as opposed to the previous 2,500. In light of these challenges, various studies (34) have proposed the implementation of cover crops as a means of alleviating the adverse impacts of climate change. Agrivoltaics represent an intelligent solution, effectively enhancing plant productivity while simultaneously generating renewable energy. The precise increase in productivity is contingent upon the specific vineyard varieties, the type of agrivoltaic system, and climatic conditions. Further research is necessary to identify the specific factors influencing productivity. Nevertheless, it is evident that there is a positive correlation between vineyard productivity and the integration of agrivoltaics in a region where temperatures and droughts are increasing.
Conclusion
The exploration of agrivoltaics in Sicilian vineyards presents a promising avenue for unlocking agriculture and energy synergies. By integrating solar PV installations with traditional agricultural practices, this innovative approach offers a sustainable solution to address challenges posed by climate change, energy demands, and food insecurity. Despite the higher initial capital expenditure associated with agrivoltaics, the potential benefits are numerous. These include augmented energy production, enhanced crop yield and quality, and enhanced resilience against adverse weather conditions. Additionally, agrivoltaic systems have shown benefits over the water resource management, which is key for wine production. Over the long run, these advantages prove to be more profitable for vineyard owners. In the climate of growing and escalating consequences toward climate change, reforms and innovations like in agrivoltaics. Additionally, in order to maintain its leading position in the wine industry, Italy must adopt innovative solutions. Agrivoltaics emerges as the optimal solution, offering a multifaceted approach to safeguarding and enhancing wine productivity and quality. Furthermore, agrivoltaics enhances the resilience of agricultural communities and ecosystems in the context of an evolving climate landscape. By embracing agrivoltaic practices, Italy can not only mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change but also contribute to fostering a more sustainable and resilient future for both the environment and the farming community across the country.
References
1. Dinesh H., Pearce J.M., The potential of agrivoltaic systems, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 54, 2016, Pages 299-308, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.024
2. Di Francia, G.; Cupo, P. A Cost–Benefit Analysis for Utility-Scale Agrivoltaic Implementation in Italy. Energies 2023, 16, 2991. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16072991
3. Davey, C., The Advantages and Disadvantages of Agrivoltaics, 12 October 2021, Earth.org, https://earth.org/agrivoltaics/
4. International Energy Agency, Italy 2023 Energy Policy Review, 2023, https://www.iea.org/countries/italy
5. Bianco, V., Cascetta , F., & Nardini, S., Analysis of technology diffusion policies for renewable energy. The case of the Italian solar photovoltaic sector. 2021, Elseiver - Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessment https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2021.101250
6. Bellini E., Italy’s annual new solar additions hit 5.23 GW in 2023, PV Magazine, 20 February 2024, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2024/02/20/italy-added-5-23-gw-of-new-solar-in-2023/
7. International Trade Administration, Italy - Country Commercial Guide, 2022, https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/italy-agricultural-sector
8.ISTAT, Struttura e caratteristiche delle unità economiche del settore agricolo, 2021, https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/236288
9. Matarazzo, A., Arfo’, S., Arcuria, S., Mertoli, F., Zerbo, A., Scuderi, A., The Agro-Photovoltaic Sector as a Possible Implementation Tool in the Sicilian Energy Transition. 2024 In: Lagioia, G., Paiano, A., Amicarelli, V., Gallucci, T., Ingrao, C. (eds) Innovation, Quality and Sustainability for a Resilient Circular Economy. AISME 2022. Circular Economy and Sustainability. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-55206-9_16
10. Agenzia nazionale per le nuove tecnologie, l'energia e lo sviluppo economico sostenibile (ENEA), Energia: ENEA mappa l’agrivoltaico italiano, 2023, https://www.media.enea.it/comunicati-e-news/archivio-anni/anno-2023/energia-enea-mappa-l-agrivoltaico-italiano.html
11. Di Francia, G.; Cupo, P. A Cost–Benefit Analysis for Utility-Scale Agrivoltaic Implementation in Italy. Energies 2023, 16, 2991. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16072991
12. Bertelli M., Can sunny Sicily become a clean energy hub for Europe? Some residents need convincing, Euronews, 9 May 2023
13. Matarazzo, A., Arfo’, S., Arcuria, S., Mertoli, F., Zerbo, A., Scuderi, A., The Agro-Photovoltaic Sector as a Possible Implementation Tool in the Sicilian Energy Transition, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-55206-9_16
14. Matarazzo, A., Arfo’, S., Arcuria, S., Mertoli, F., Zerbo, A., Scuderi, A., The Agro-Photovoltaic Sector as a Possible Implementation Tool in the Sicilian Energy Transition, 2024 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-55206-9_16
15. Chaire Paysage et énergie (ENSP), Agrivoltaics in wine growing areas, 2022, https://www.citego.org/bdf_fiche-document-3087_en.html
16. Boroli, How does global warming affect wine?, 31 May 2023, https://www.boroli.it/en/global-warming-andwine/#:~:text=Starting%20with%20cultivation%20techniques%2C%20grapevines,and%20negatively%20affects%20fruity%20aromas.
17. Chaire Paysage et énergie (ENSP), Agrivoltaics in wine growing areas, 2022, https://www.citego.org/bdf_fiche-document-3087_en.html
18. Andrade S., Wildfires force Sicilian winemakers to grapple with climate change, The Washington Post, 31 August 2023,https://www.washingtonpost.com/food/2023/08/31/wildfires-sicily-wine-climate-change/
19. ANSA, Assovini, in Sicilia calo di produzione ma la qualità non è compromessa, 2 August 2023, https://www.ansa.it/canale_terraegusto/notizie/vino/2023/08/02/assovini-in-sicilia-calo-produzione-ma-qualita-non-compromessa_f9c8970e-ab6b-4713-84be-0f4483f8f3ca.html
20. Calculated through Renewables.ninja
21. The industry standard for most solar panels' lifespans is 25 to 30 years. https://www.forbes.com/home-improvement/solar/how-long-do-solar-panels-last/#:~:text=When%20you're%20doing%20your,for%2025%20years%20or%20more.
22. Following similar solar PV projects
23.Calculated as: 15 year euro 3,26% + premium project 2,5% = 5,76%; WACC: 5,76% x 70% debt + 10% x 30% = 7,0%
24. Coldwell Solar, How Much Investment Do You Need For A Solar Farm?, https://coldwellsolar.com/commercial-solar-blog/how-much-investment-do-you-need-for-a-solar-farm/
25. Wiser, Ryan H., Mark Bolinger, Joachim Seel, Benchmarking Utility-Scale PV Operational Expenses and Project Lifetimes: Results from a Survey of U.S. Solar Industry Professionals, 2020, https://emp.lbl.gov/publications/benchmarking-utility-scale-pv
26. Bellini E., Italy’s annual new solar additions hit 5.23 GW in 2023, PV Magazine, 20 February 2024, https://www.pv-magazine.com/2024/02/20/italy-added-5-23-gw-of-new-solar-in-2023/
27. Chalgynbayeva, A.; Gabnai, Z.; Lengyel, P.; Pestisha, A.; Bai, A. Worldwide Research Trends in Agrivoltaic Systems—A Bibliometric Review. Energies 2023, https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020611
28. https://thingler.io/country/Italy
29. Chalgynbayeva, A.; Gabnai, Z.; Lengyel, P.; Pestisha, A.; Bai, A. Worldwide Research Trends in Agrivoltaic Systems—A Bibliometric Review. Energies 2023, https://doi.org/10.3390/en16020611
30. Amaducci, S., Yin, X., & Colauzzi, M., Agrivoltaic systems to optimise land use for electric energy production. Applied Energy, 2018,. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.03.081
31. Mirás-Avalos, J.M.; Araujo, E.S. Optimization of Vineyard Water Management: Challenges, Strategies, and Perspectives. Water 2021, 13, 746. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13060746
32. Idem
33. Italia Solare, 5 falsi miti su fotovoltaico e agricoltura, https://www.italiasolare.eu/fotovoltaico-e-agricoltura/
34. Peng, J.; Wei, W.; Lu, H.-C.; Chen, W.; Li, S.-D.; Wang, J.; Duan, C.-Q.; He, F. Effect of Covering Crops between Rows on the Vineyard Microclimate, Berry Composition and Wine Sensory Attributes of ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ (Vitis vinifera L. cv.) Grapes in a Semi-Arid Climate of Northwest China. Horticulturae 2022, https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae8060518
