BY GIHAN ELHADIDY
Gihan Elhadidy holds a doctoral degree in international affairs from Johns Hopkins University, with a focus on climate change policy. Her keen interest lies at the nexus of climate change, conflict and women's issues in the Middle East. She is also interested in examining the impacts of technology on women in the Middle East.
Climate change is known to have a detrimental effect on women, as they account for the majority of the world’s poor, and are more reliant on natural resources that are affected by climate change, as well as the social, economic and political barriers that hamper their ability to cope.[i] These effects are more intense in conflict-ridden regions like parts of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Yet, the gender, climate, and conflict nexus in the Middle East has not received sufficient attention. Women can play a crucial role in ushering in a just transition by engaging them in environmental peacebuilding, a conflict resolution theory arguing that despite conflict, communities that come together to protect common natural resources, can also build a foundation for peace.[ii]
Explaining the Gender, Climate Change, and Conflict Nexus
Women bear a heavier burden for both conflicts and climate change. In comparison to men, women and children are fourteen times more likely to die due to climate-induced disasters.[iii] On the other hand, conflict exacerbates pre-existing economic and political tensions, and provokes heightened levels of violence against women. This includes sexual violence as a tactic of warfare.[iv] The limited access to education and information undermines women’s preparedness to manage climate-related risks.[v] Cultural restrictions also affect women’s abilities to respond to disasters, for instance when women need the consent of a male relative to relocate.[vi] Moreover, traditional clothing can interfere with their ability to run and swim, and when losing their clothing under conditions of extreme conflict or environmental disasters, social stigma prevents them from entering public areas, hence hampering their capacity to receive aid.[vii] Conflict can also cause disruptions in access to crucial services, including sexual and reproductive health services, especially for displaced women.[viii] Gender-differentiated impacts of conflict and climate change result from social inequalities embedded in local structures, norms, and practices including those related to social reproductive labor.[ix] Gender is thus a cross-cutting theme that intersects with climate change and security, an intervening variable that remains insufficiently addressed.[x]
The Gender, Climate and Conflict Nexus in the Middle East
The UN Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia in assessing the intersecting relationship between climate change, conflict, and gender in the Arab region concluded that “these phenomena had a reinforcing negative impact on gender equality.”[xii] Across the Middle East, women’s struggles are compounded by the evolving realities of a changing climate and ever-growing conflicts. Nearly 23% of working women in the Middle East are employed in agriculture, which makes them more vulnerable to climate change due to droughts and floods that affect farming and lead to a decline in harvests.[xiii] Women’s lack of independence and decision-making power limits their ability to adapt to climate change, and their underrepresentation in community politics gives them little influence on the design of strategies and policies for adapting to the climate crisis.[xiv] In 2021, almost 3 million people in the MENA region were forcibly displaced due to extreme climate incidents, which turned them into climate refugees.[xv] As migrants are often men who leave their families behind, women in rural areas shoulder heavier workloads in farming, domestic labor, and the management of water resources.[xvi] Due to unfavorable social norms, limited access to education, and a lack of skills for income generation, women are at risk of falling into poverty.[xvii]
In Jordan, the government is working to elevate female participation in the workforce which has declined from 22% in 2014 to 14.3% in 2022.[xviii] Evidence points to climate change as a potential reason for women’s declining role in the Jordanian workforce. Mercy Corps found that in a rural area in Jordan, women received systematically less water than men due to the privatized water delivery system whereas male drivers of water delivery trucks give priority to males in water distribution, to the disadvantage of women-led households.[xix] As it becomes more difficult to collect water, women and girls are forced to deprioritize education and employment.[xx] In rural parts of Morocco, appalling climate conditions affect women’s access to health services, especially in flood-prone areas. In the early 2000s, female literacy rates in Morocco were historically low at nearly 42%.[xxi] In 2021, and despite significant efforts, Moroccan women still lagged behind men in literacy by nearly twenty percentage points. Climate change is likely to widen this gap as dropout rates soar during extreme weather events. With agriculture as the main employment sector for women in low and lower-middle-income countries, women tend to work harder during periods of drought and excessive rainfall to secure resources and income, which often forces girls to drop out of school to help their mothers. Refugee camps are a particularly challenging environment for women who are exposed to sexual violence in the trek to water collection, leading them to search for safer routes that require more time. In Yemen, a country at war since 2014 and witnessing one of the world’s worst humanitarian crises, only 40% of the population has access to electricity, which magnifies the impact of heatwaves, especially for vulnerable segments of the population such as the elderly, people with chronic diseases, and pregnant women.[xxii] Research shows that extreme heat leads to an increase in stillborn incidences, and vector-borne illnesses that are aggravated by climate change have also been linked to worse maternal and neonatal conditions.[xxiii]
A Roadmap for Women and Environmental Peacebuilding in the Middle East
Tackling the impact of conflict and climate change on women in the Middle East requires a more robust framework of action to integrate the needs and vulnerabilities of women and mobilize their potential as powerful agents of change in conflict situations. Women bring a pacifist voice into the conversation. Their roles and identities carry a crucial perspective that transcends the limited geostrategic calculations of male leaders, making women key stakeholders in fostering harmony between people to end conflict and tackle climate change.
Environmental peacebuilding draws on the insights of ecofeminism and climate justice. Ecofeminism refers to a theory and movement that revolves around the relationship between feminism and environmental issues, with the inherent similarities and intersections such as patriarchy and capitalism that have oppressed women and nature.[xxiv] Climate justice, on the other hand, is a term and movement that acknowledges the differential impacts of climate change on underprivileged populations in the economic, social, and public health realms.[xxv] To chart a path forward, governments and civil society in the Middle East need to act simultaneously on a number of levels. On the grassroots level, environmental peacebuilding needs to be integrated into the priorities of feminist movements in the region. Feminist and women’s rights movements in MENA have a long history of working to promote gender justice, however, as of now, climate justice is not a central theme on the feminist agenda in MENA.[xxvi]
On the governmental level, increasing women’s participation in climate change negotiating teams is an important vehicle to amplify female voices. An analysis by the BBC found that less than 34% of country negotiating team members are women, and some teams are 90% male.[xxvii] Female representatives in country negotiating teams can emphasize the linkages between climate change and violent conflict, and thus be forces for change.
Another crucial component is investing in capacity-building programs that empower women in the MENA region with the necessary knowledge and skills to engage in environmental peacebuilding efforts, such as negotiation skills, leadership development, and natural resource management on the community level. This includes supporting educational initiatives and research endeavors that explore the gender, climate, and conflict nexus more deeply. Research-based evidence is an instrumental foundation for effective advocacy and policy development.
The gender, climate and conflict nexus in the Middle East necessitates immediate action. Women in the region bear the brunt of violent conflict and climate change. Addressing this nexus is imperative not just for women’s emancipation and well-being, but for the overall stability and resilience of the region.
References
[i] UN WomenWatch. 2009. “Fact Sheet: Women, Gender Equality and Climate Change”. Women_and_Climate_Change_Factsheet.pdf (un.org)
[ii] Light, Andrew. 2020. "Environmental Peacebuilding and the Transferability of EcoPeace Middle East’s Strategy." Master’s Thesis, University of Michigan. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/154782/Light_Andrew_Practicum.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
[iii] UNHCR & Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. 2022. “Gender Displacement and Climate Change”, November 2022. https://www.unhcr.org/media/gender-displacement-and-climate-change
[iv] Smith, Jessica M., Lauren Olosky, and Jennifer, Grosman Fernández. 2021. "The Climate-Gender-Conflict Nexus." Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace, and Security: 1-38 https://genderclimatetracker.org/sites/default/files/Resources/The-Climate-Gender-Conflict-Nexus.pdf
[v] Yavinsky, Rachel. “Women More Vulnerable Than Men to Climate Change”, Population Reference Bureau, December 26, 2012. https://www.prb.org/resources/women-more-vulnerable-than-men-to-climate-change/#:~:text=Cultural%20restrictions%20on%20mobility%20can,for%20them%20to%20escape%20disasters.
[vi] Yavinsky, Rachel. “Women More Vulnerable Than Men to Climate Change”, Population Reference Bureau, December 26, 2012. https://www.prb.org/resources/women-more-vulnerable-than-men-to-climate-change/#:~:text=Cultural%20restrictions%20on%20mobility%20can,for%20them%20to%20escape%20disasters.
[vii] Yavinsky, Rachel. “Women More Vulnerable Than Men to Climate Change”, Population Reference Bureau, December 26, 2012. https://www.prb.org/resources/women-more-vulnerable-than-men-to-climate-change/#:~:text=Cultural%20restrictions%20on%20mobility%20can,for%20them%20to%20escape%20disasters.
[viii] Smith, Jessica M., Lauren Olosky, and Jennifer, Grosman Fernández. 2021. "The Climate-Gender-Conflict Nexus." Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace, and Security: 1-38 https://genderclimatetracker.org/sites/default/files/Resources/The-Climate-Gender-Conflict-Nexus.pdf
[ix] Ide, Tobias, Marisa O. Ensor, Virginie Le Masson, and Susanne Kozak. 2021. "Gender in the Climate-Conflict Nexus: “Forgotten” Variables, Alternative Securities, and Hidden Power Dimensions." Politics and Governance 9, no. 4: 43-52. https://www.cogitatiopress.com/politicsandgovernance/article/view/4275
[x] Ide, Tobias, Marisa O. Ensor, Virginie Le Masson, and Susanne Kozak. 2021. "Gender in the Climate-Conflict Nexus: “Forgotten” Variables, Alternative Securities, and Hidden Power Dimensions." Politics and Governance 9, no. 4: 43-52. https://www.cogitatiopress.com/politicsandgovernance/article/view/4275
[xi] Smith, Jessica M., Lauren Olosky, and Jennifer, Grosman Fernández. 2021. "The Climate-Gender-Conflict Nexus." Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace, and Security: 1-38 https://genderclimatetracker.org/sites/default/files/Resources/The-Climate-Gender-Conflict-Nexus.pdf
[xii] Prescott, Jody M. 2019. Armed Conflict, Women and Climate Change. New York: Routledge. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Armed_Conflict_Women_and_Climate_Change/3qp-DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=climate+change,+gender,+and+conflict&pg=PT6&printsec=frontcover
[xiii] Climate, Gender, and Food Security Resilience – Good Practices from the Middle East and North Africa, World Bank Event, March 8, 2023, https://www.worldbank.org/en/events/2023/02/27/climate-gender-and-food-security-resilience-good-practices-from-the-middle-east-and-north-africa#:~:text=Around%2023%25%20of%20employed%20women,harvest%20resulting%20from%20climate%20change.
[xiv] Yavinsky, Rachel. “Women More Vulnerable Than Men to Climate Change”, Population Reference Bureau, December 26, 2012. https://www.prb.org/resources/women-more-vulnerable-than-men-to-climate-change/#:~:text=Cultural%20restrictions%20on%20mobility%20can,for%20them%20to%20escape%20disasters.
[xv] Freedman, Benjamin. 2023. “Getting Ahead of the Middle East’s Climate Refugee Conundrum”. Middle East Institute, April 26, 2023. https://www.mei.edu/publications/getting-ahead-middle-easts-climate-refugee-conundrum
[xvi] Waha, Katharina, Krummenauer, Linda, Adams, Sophie, Aich, Valentin, Baarsch, Florent, Coumou, Dim, Fader, Marianela et al. 2017. "Climate Change Impacts in the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) Region and their Implications for Vulnerable Population Groups," Regional Environmental Change 17: 1623-1638.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10113-017-1144-2
[xvii] Waha, Katharina, Krummenauer, Linda, Adams, Sophie, Aich, Valentin, Baarsch, Florent, Coumou, Dim, Fader, Marianela et al. 2017. "Climate Change Impacts in the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) Region and their Implications for Vulnerable Population Groups," Regional Environmental Change 17: 1623-1638.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10113-017-1144-2
[xviii] Malle, Adele. 2023. “Climate Change: The Lurking Variable in Jordan’s Gender Inequality”. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, August 3, 2023. https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/90321
[xix] Malle, Adele. 2023. “Climate Change: The Lurking Variable in Jordan’s Gender Inequality”. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, August 3, 2023. https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/90321
[xx] Malle, Adele. 2023. “Climate Change: The Lurking Variable in Jordan’s Gender Inequality”. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, August 3, 2023. https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/90321
[xxi] Kamil, Aya. 2023. “The Climate-Gender Nexus: A Gap in Moroccan Policy”. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, August 3, 2023. https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/90321
[xxii] Waha, Katharina, Krummenauer, Linda, Adams, Sophie, Aich, Valentin, Baarsch, Florent, Coumou, Dim, Fader, Marianela et al. 2017. "Climate Change Impacts in the Middle East and Northern Africa (MENA) Region and their Implications for Vulnerable Population Groups," Regional Environmental Change 17: 1623-1638.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10113-017-1144-2
[xxiii] UN Women. 2022. “Explainer: How Gender Inequality and Climate Change are Interconnected”, February 28, 2022. https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/explainer/2022/02/explainer-how-gender-inequality-and-climate-change-are-interconnected
[xxiv] Kvinna Till Kvinna Foundation. 2022. “Feminist Movements and Climate Justice in Middle East and North Africa”. https://kvinnatillkvinna.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Feminist-Movements-and-Climate-Justice-in-Middle-East-and-North-Africa.pdf
[xxv] Simmons, Daisy. 2020. “What is Climate Justice?”, Yale Climate Connections, July 29, 2020. https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2020/07/what-is-climate-justice/
[xxvi] Kvinna Till Kvinna Foundation. 2022. “Feminist Movements and Climate Justice in Middle East and North Africa”. https://kvinnatillkvinna.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Feminist-Movements-and-Climate-Justice-in-Middle-East-and-North-Africa.pdf
[xxvii] Kapp, Caroline. 2022. “Women Underrepresented at COP27 Summit”. Council on Foreign Relations, November 18, 2022. https://www.cfr.org/blog/women-underrepresented-cop27-summit
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